When Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945, the declaration was not only a political statement but also a promise. It promised that the former territories of the Dutch East Indies would stand united as one sovereign nation. Yet for more than a decade after independence, that promise remained incomplete. Papua, then known internationally as Netherlands New Guinea or Irian Barat (West Papua), was left outside Indonesia’s administrative control. While the rest of the archipelago moved forward as a new republic, Papua became the center of a prolonged dispute that tested Indonesia’s diplomacy, military resolve, and standing in the international community.
The journey that eventually brought Papua into Indonesia was neither short nor simple. It unfolded through a combination of diplomatic negotiations, international mediation, and political decisions that reflected the realities of the Cold War era. Two moments stand out as decisive turning points in this process. The first was Operation Trikora, launched in 1961 as a national call to reclaim Papua from Dutch control. The second was Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat (Pepera) in 1969, a United Nations supervised process that formally confirmed Papua’s integration into Indonesia. Together, these events shaped not only Papua’s political status but also Indonesia’s identity as a post-colonial nation determined to defend its territorial integrity.
Papua After 1949: A Lingering Colonial Question
The roots of the Papua issue can be traced back to the Round Table Conference of 1949, which formally ended the armed conflict between Indonesia and the Netherlands. While the Dutch recognized Indonesia’s sovereignty, they refused to immediately relinquish control over Netherlands New Guinea. The conference concluded with an agreement that the status of Papua would be discussed at a later date. This unresolved clause became a source of frustration for Indonesia and a focal point of nationalist sentiment.
Throughout the 1950s, Indonesia repeatedly attempted to resolve the Papua question through diplomacy. Indonesian leaders argued that Papua was historically, geographically, and legally part of the former Dutch East Indies and therefore belonged to Indonesia. The Dutch government, however, maintained that Papuans were ethnically and culturally distinct from Indonesians and should be prepared for eventual independence under Dutch guidance. As years passed without progress, Jakarta increasingly viewed the Dutch position as an extension of colonialism in a region that should have been decolonized along with the rest of Indonesia.
This growing frustration was felt not only among political elites but also within the broader Indonesian public. Papua became a symbol of unfinished independence, a reminder that national sovereignty remained incomplete. By the end of the 1950s, Indonesia began to shift its strategy, combining diplomatic pressure with preparations for more assertive action.
Operation Trikora: A National Call for Unity
On 1 December 1961, the Dutch colonial administration held a ceremony in Hollandia (Jayapura), Netherlands New Guinea, which permitted a local Papuan council (Nieuw Guinea Raad) to raise the “Morning Star” flag (Bintang Kejora) and recognize a local anthem. This event has been invoked by some, like Organisasi Papua Merdeka, or OPM (Free Papua Organization), as a “declaration of independence” of West Papua.
On 19 December 1961, President Soekarno delivered a powerful speech in Yogyakarta that would define Indonesia’s approach to Papua. In that speech, he announced Tri Komando Rakyat (Three People’s Commands), later known as Operation Trikora. The declaration called on the Indonesian people to prevent the formation of a Dutch-backed puppet state in Papua, to raise the Indonesian flag over the territory, and to prepare for national mobilization in defense of the republic.
Operation Trikora was not merely a military plan. It was a political statement designed to send a clear message to both domestic and international audiences. Domestically, it reinforced national unity and mobilized public support around the idea that Papua was an inseparable part of Indonesia. Internationally, it signaled that Indonesia was no longer willing to accept indefinite delays in resolving the Papua issue.
The Indonesian government backed this declaration with concrete actions. Diplomatic pressure on the Netherlands intensified, Dutch companies operating in Indonesia were nationalized, and military preparations were placed under the command of Komando Mandala, which was tasked with planning operations related to the liberation of Papua. While armed clashes remained limited, the combination of political pressure and military readiness significantly altered the balance of negotiations.
The New York Agreement: Diplomacy Meets International Mediation
The escalation surrounding Operation Trikora coincided with heightened global tensions during the Cold War. The possibility of a military confrontation in Papua raised concerns among major powers, particularly the United States, which feared that prolonged conflict could push Indonesia closer to the Soviet bloc. These concerns opened the door for international mediation.
On 15 August 1962, Indonesia and the Netherlands signed the New York Agreement, brokered with the involvement of the United Nations and the United States. The agreement marked a breakthrough. Under its terms, administrative control of Papua would first be transferred from the Netherlands to the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) and later handed over to Indonesia. Crucially, the agreement also stipulated that a future process of self-determination would be conducted to confirm the wishes of the Papuan people.
For Indonesia, the New York Agreement represented a major diplomatic victory. It acknowledged Indonesia’s claim to administer Papua while embedding the process within an international legal framework. For the international community, it offered a peaceful mechanism to resolve a potentially destabilizing conflict. On 1 May 1963, Papua officially came under Indonesian administration, marking the end of direct Dutch colonial rule in the territory.
Administering Papua and Preparing for Pepera
The years following the transfer of authority were a period of transition. Indonesia faced the challenge of governing a vast and remote region with limited infrastructure and diverse local communities. At the same time, preparations were underway to fulfill the New York Agreement’s requirement for a self-determination process.
This process culminated in Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat (Pepera), or Free Act Choice, in 1969. Unlike a one-person-one-vote referendum, Pepera was conducted through a representative system, reflecting the political realities and logistical constraints of the time. A total of 1,026 representatives from various regions of Papua were selected to participate. These representatives engaged in deliberations before expressing their collective decision regarding Papua’s political future.
Pepera 1969: A Defining Moment
Between 14 July and 2 August 1969, the Pepera process took place under the supervision of the United Nations. The outcome was a unanimous declaration by the representatives to remain part of the Republic of Indonesia. The results were reported to the United Nations General Assembly, which subsequently acknowledged the process through Resolution 2504 in 1969.
This international acknowledgment was a critical moment. While debates and differing perspectives about Pepera have persisted over the decades, the legal and diplomatic position of the international community has remained consistent. The United Nations’ acceptance of the results confirmed that Papua’s integration into Indonesia was recognized within the framework of international law.
For Indonesia, Pepera was the final step in a long journey that began with the struggle against colonialism. It transformed Papua’s status from a disputed territory into a legally recognized part of the Indonesian state.
International Recognition and Its Lasting Impact
The acceptance of Pepera by the United Nations carried significant implications. It effectively closed the international dispute over Papua’s status and affirmed Indonesia’s sovereignty over the region. From a diplomatic standpoint, this recognition has remained the cornerstone of Indonesia’s position in international forums.
The combination of Operation Trikora, the New York Agreement, and Pepera demonstrated how national determination, when aligned with international mechanisms, could shape historical outcomes. Indonesia did not achieve integration through unilateral declaration alone but through a process that involved negotiation, mediation, and formal recognition by the global community.
The Historical Meaning of Trikora and Pepera Today
More than half a century later, Operation Trikora and Pepera remain deeply embedded in Indonesia’s national memory. They are taught in schools, commemorated in national discourse, and frequently referenced in discussions about Papua’s place within Indonesia.
For many Indonesians, Trikora symbolizes resistance against lingering colonial influence and the determination to defend national unity. Pepera, meanwhile, represents the moment when Papua’s status was formalized and recognized internationally. Together, they form a historical narrative that underscores Indonesia’s commitment to sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Conclusion
The integration of Papua into Indonesia was the result of a long and complex historical process. Operation Trikora marked the moment when Indonesia asserted its resolve to complete its independence. The New York Agreement provided an internationally accepted pathway toward resolution. Pepera confirmed Papua’s place within Indonesia through a process recognized by the United Nations.
These events were not isolated incidents but interconnected chapters in a broader story of decolonization, diplomacy, and nation-building. Understanding Trikora and Pepera is essential to understanding how Indonesia emerged as a unified state and how Papua became an integral part of that journey. Their legacy continues to shape Indonesia’s national identity and its relationship with the international community today.